02.11 / Topic 11 of 11
International
The treaties that bind nations, and the UK's place in them.
International law is mostly made by treaties between states. The UK is a 'dualist' country: a treaty only becomes enforceable in UK courts once Parliament passes a law bringing it in.
- 17
- Essential laws
- 04
- Chapters
- 09
- Weird ones
- 02
- Busted myths
AT A GLANCE · 06 KEY NUMBERS
- 5PERMANENT MEMBERSwith a Security Council vetoUN Charter →
- 196STATESevery country has ratifiedGeneva Conventions →
- 30ARTICLESof universal rightsUniversal Declaration of Human Rights →
- 46MEMBER STATESin the Council of EuropeEuropean Convention on Human Rights →
- 54ARTICLESon children's rightsUN Convention on the Rights of the Child →
- 193STATESshare the same aviation rulesChicago Convention →
CHAPTER A · 03 LAWS
Peace & war
The rules that limit force and punish atrocities.
UN Charter
Founded the United Nations and bans the use of force between states, except self-defence or with Security Council authorisation.
What it means for youThe UK is one of five permanent members of the Security Council, with a veto.
In practice
- Article 2(4): no threat or use of force against another state.
- Article 51: the inherent right of self-defence.
- The UK is one of five permanent Security Council members with a veto.
Geneva Conventions
The core laws of war: protecting wounded soldiers, prisoners of war and civilians.
What it means for youMisusing the red cross emblem is illegal in the UK under the Geneva Conventions Act.
In practice
- Ratified by every country in the world.
- Made part of UK law by the Geneva Conventions Act 1957.
- Misusing the Red Cross emblem is an offence.
Rome Statute (International Criminal Court)
Created the ICC in The Hague to prosecute genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and aggression.
What it means for youUK courts can try people for genocide and war crimes committed abroad in some cases.
In practice
- The court began work in 2002; the UK is a member.
- It only steps in when national courts are unwilling or unable.
CHAPTER B · 04 LAWS
Human rights
Rights for everyone, everywhere.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
30 articles setting out rights for everyone, everywhere. Not a treaty itself, but the foundation of modern human rights law.
What it means for youArticle 1: all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
In practice
- Translated into over 500 languages, a world record.
- Inspired the ECHR and two UN Covenants (1966).
European Convention on Human Rights
A Council of Europe treaty with 46 member states, enforced by the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg.
What it means for youAfter using every UK court, you can take a case to Strasbourg.
In practice
- British lawyers helped draft it after WWII.
- Not part of the EU: the UK is still a member after Brexit.
- Brought into UK law by the Human Rights Act 1998.
Refugee Convention
Defines a refugee and bans 'refoulement': sending someone back to a country where they face persecution.
What it means for youClaiming asylum is legal. How you arrive can affect your claim under UK law.
In practice
- A refugee has a well-founded fear of persecution for race, religion, nationality, political opinion or social group.
- The 1967 Protocol removed its original limits on time and geography.
UN Convention on the Rights of the Child
The most widely ratified human rights treaty in history: 54 articles on children's rights.
What it means for youWales built it into its own law: ministers must consider children's rights in their decisions.
In practice
- Welsh ministers must have 'due regard' to it (2011 Measure).
- Scotland incorporated it into law in 2024.
CHAPTER C · 05 LAWS
Travel, trade & families
Treaties you rely on every time you fly, buy or cross a border.
Chicago Convention
The founding treaty of international civil aviation. It created the UN's International Civil Aviation Organization.
What it means for youIt's why your plane can fly over other countries and land to refuel.
In practice
- Every state controls the airspace above its territory.
- Sets global standards for safety, licensing and air navigation.
- Almost every country in the world is a party.
Montreal Convention
Sets airlines' liability for lost or damaged baggage, delays and passenger injury on international flights.
What it means for youReport lost or damaged bags in writing quickly: damage within 7 days, delayed bags within 21 days.
In practice
- Baggage compensation is capped in 'Special Drawing Rights': currently 1,519 SDR, roughly £1,600.
- Report damaged bags within 7 days, and delayed bags within 21 days of getting them back.
- There's no upper limit for death or injury claims.
Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations
Gives diplomats immunity from arrest and makes embassies 'inviolable': police can't enter without permission.
What it means for youDiplomats are still meant to obey local laws. Countries can expel them if they don't.
In practice
- Embassies are NOT foreign territory; they're protected premises.
- A host country can expel diplomats by declaring them 'persona non grata'.
Hague Child Abduction Convention
If a child is wrongfully taken to or kept in another member country, courts must usually order their quick return.
What it means for youTaking a child abroad without the other parent's consent can be abduction. Get written consent or a court order.
In practice
- Over 100 countries are members, including the UK.
- Taking a child abroad without the other parent's consent (or a court order) can be a crime in the UK.
- Applications go through each country's central authority.
World Trade Organization
Sets global rules for trade between its 160+ members and settles trade disputes between countries.
What it means for youIt's why tariffs on imports from most countries follow published UK rates.
In practice
- Members must not discriminate between trading partners ('most favoured nation').
- Free trade deals are an allowed exception.
- The UK became an independent member with its own tariff schedule after Brexit.
CHAPTER D · 05 LAWS
Planet, sea & space
Who controls the oceans, the poles, orbit and the climate.
UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
Sets out who controls which bits of sea: 12 nautical miles of territorial sea and a 200-mile exclusive economic zone.
What it means for youShips of every country can pass peacefully through UK waters.
In practice
- Ships have a right of 'innocent passage' through other states' territorial seas.
- The deep seabed is the 'common heritage of mankind'.
Antarctic Treaty
Antarctica is reserved for peace and science. Military activity and nuclear testing there are banned.
What it means for youBritish expeditions there need a permit from the Foreign Office under the UK's Antarctic Act.
In practice
- Territorial claims, including the UK's, are frozen by the treaty.
- Mining is banned under a 1991 protocol.
- Scientists from any member can inspect other countries' bases.
Outer Space Treaty
No country can claim the Moon or any other celestial body, and nuclear weapons can't be placed in orbit.
What it means for youSelling 'land on the Moon' is a novelty, not a legal title.
In practice
- Space exploration is to benefit all countries.
- States are responsible for their companies' activities in space.
- Astronauts are treated as 'envoys of mankind' and must be helped in emergencies.
Paris Agreement
Countries aim to keep warming well below 2°C, ideally 1.5°C. Each sets its own climate targets.
What it means for youThe UK's own target is set by the Climate Change Act: net zero by 2050.
In practice
- The UK's Climate Change Act 2008 was the world's first legally binding national climate law.
- UK law requires net zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050.
Brexit laws
The UK left the EU on 31 January 2020. EU-derived rules kept in UK law are now called 'assimilated law'.
What it means for youUK citizens can stay up to 90 days in any 180-day period in the Schengen area without a visa.
In practice
- The Windsor Framework (2023) sets special trade arrangements for Northern Ireland.
- UK courts are no longer bound by new EU court judgments.
NOTES
Did you know?
NOTE 01Under the 1967 Outer Space Treaty no country can claim the Moon or any planet.
NOTE 02The 1959 Antarctic Treaty reserves a whole continent for peace and science.
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